Submicron fusion devices, methods and systems

ABSTRACT

Methods, apparatus, devices, and systems for creating, controlling, conducting, and optimizing fusion activities of nuclei. In particular, the present inventions relate to, 5 among other things, fusion activities that are conducted individually or collectively on a very small scale, preferably on the nano-scale or smaller such as pico to femto scales, for the utilization of energy produced from these activities in smaller devices and for aggregation into larger devices.

PRIORITY DATA

An Application Data Sheet is filed concurrently with this specificationas part of the present application. Each application that the presentapplication claims benefit of or priority to as identified in theconcurrently filed Application Data Sheet is incorporated by referenceherein in its entirety and for all purposes.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention

The present inventions relate to methods, apparatuses, devices, andsystems for creating, controlling, conducting, and optimizing fusionactivities of nuclei. In particular, the present inventions relate to,among other things, fusion activities that are conducted individually orcollectively on a very small scale, preferably on the nano-scale orsmaller such as pico to femto scales, for the utilization of energyproduced from these activities in smaller devices and for aggregationinto larger devices.

Controlled fusion devices, methods and systems are taught and disclosedin US Patent Application Publication Nos. 2010/0294666, 2011/0188623,U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 13/663,751, 14/205,337, 13/952,826,61/925,114, 61/925,131, 61/925,122, 61/925,148, 61/925,142, 61/210,383,and 61/843,015 the entire disclosures of each of which are incorporatedherein by reference.

As used herein, unless expressly stated otherwise, the term fusionshould be given its broadest possible meaning, and would includeinteractions between two or more nuclei whereby one or more new ordifferent nuclei are formed, as well as subsequently induced orderivative reactions and energy generation associated therewith.

As used herein, unless expressly stated otherwise, the terms formation,formation of material, and similar terms should be given their broadestpossible meaning, and would include transmutation, and the modificationor creation of a nucleus or nuclei, such as, for example, nuclides, andisotopes having value in medical, imaging, testing, and other usefulapplications.

As used herein, unless expressly stated otherwise, the term lightelement means an element or ion with atomic mass of 62 or less.

As used herein, unless expressly stated otherwise, the term physicalconfinement, physical containment, and similar such terms mean the useof a physical structure that passively confines the fusion reaction asopposed to the use of directed energy, including shockwaves, EM fieldssuch as from lasers, or electromagnetic fields to confine the fusioninteraction.

As used herein, unless expressly stated otherwise, the term stronglyionized plasma means a plasma whereby the ratio of ions to neutrals isat least about 1:1. As used herein, unless expressly stated otherwise,the term weakly ionized plasma means a plasma whereby the ratio of ionsto neutrals is less than about 1:100. The terms plasma, ionizedmaterial, and similar such terms includes all degrees and ratios ofionization.

As used herein, unless expressly stated otherwise, the term neutralsmeans atoms, molecules or clusters with no net charge.

As used herein, unless expressly stated otherwise, the terms fusionfuel, reactants, fusion reactions and similar terms are to be giventheir broadest possible means and would include hydrogen-1, boron-11,lithium-6, lithium-7, deuterium, tritium, helium-3, nitrogen-15, and anyother elements, materials and compounds, including isotopes, that may beidentified to be useful fusion fuels, and combinations and variations ofthe foregoing.

Discussion of the State of the Art

For 60 years the science and technology communities have been strivingto achieve controlled and economically viable fusion. The commonly heldbelief in the art is that another 25-50 years of research remain beforefusion is a viable option for power generation-“As the old joke has it,fusion is the power of the future—and always will be” (“NextITERation?”, Sep. 3, 2011, The Economist). Further, until the presentinventions, it was believed that a paradigm existed in that achievingfusion of reactants was unobtainable without incredibly hightemperatures for even the most likely reactants and even highertemperatures for other reactants. As a consequence, it was furtherbelieved that there was no reason to construct, or investigate thecomposition of, a nuclear fusion reactor with lower temperature reactantconfinement.

Prior to the present inventions it was believed that the art incontrolled fusion reactions taught that temperatures in excess of150,000,000 degrees Centigrade were required to achieve favorable grossenergy balance in a controlled fusion reactor. Gross energy balance, Q,is defined as:

$\begin{matrix}{{Q = \frac{E_{fusion}}{E_{i\; n}}},} & {a.}\end{matrix}$where E_(fusion) is the total energy released by fusion reactions andE_(in) is the energy used to create the reactions. The Joint EuropeanTorus, JET, claims to have achieved Q≈0.7 and the US National IgnitionFacility recently claims to have achieved a Q>1 (ignoring the verysubstantial energy losses of its lasers). The condition of Q=1, referredto as “breakeven,” indicates that the amount of energy released byfusion reactions is equal to the amount of energy input. In practice, areactor used to produce electricity should exhibit a Q valuesignificantly greater than 1 to be commercially viable, since only aportion of the fusion energy can be converted to a useful form.Conventional thinking holds that only strongly ionized plasmas, arenecessary to achieve Q>1. These conditions limit the particle densitiesand energy confinement times that can be achieved in a fusion reactor.Thus, the art has looked to the Lawson criterion as the benchmark forcontrolled fusion reactions—a benchmark, it is believed, that no one hasyet achieved when accounting for all energy inputs. The art's pursuit ofthe Lawson criterion, or substantially similar paradigms, has led tofusion devices and systems that are large, complex, difficult to manage,expensive, and economically unviable.

A common formulation of the Lawson criterion is as follows:

$N_{\tau_{E^{*}}} > \frac{3\left( {1 - {\eta_{i\; n}\eta_{out}}} \right)H}{{\eta_{i\; n}\eta_{out}\frac{\left\langle {\sigma\; v} \right\rangle_{ab}(H)Q_{ab}}{4\left( {1 + \delta_{ab}} \right)}} - {\left( {1 - {\eta_{i\; n}\eta_{out}}} \right)A_{br}\sqrt{H}}}$

All of the parameters that go into the Lawson criterion will not bediscussed here. But in essence, the criterion requires that the productof the particle density (N) and the energy confinement time (τ_(E)*) begreater than a number dependent on, among other parameters, reactiontemperature (H) and the reactivity

σν

_(ab), which is the average of the product of the reaction cross sectionand relative velocity of the reactants. In practice, thisindustry-standard paradigm suggests that temperatures in excess of150,000,000 degrees Centigrade are required to achieve positive energybalance using a D-T fusion reaction. For proton-boron fusion, as oneexample, the criterion suggests that the product of density andconfinement time must be yet substantially higher.

It should be noted that current fusion schemes using D-T fuels, whichproduce radioactive materials, should have shielding and take steps andprecautions, such as the use of robotic operating systems to maintainsafety.

An aspect of the Lawson criterion is based on the premise that thermalenergy must be continually added to the plasma to replace lost energy tomaintain the plasma temperature and to keep it fully or highly ionized.In particular, a major source of energy loss in conventional fusionsystems is radiation due to electron bremsstrahlung and cyclotron motionas mobile electrons interact with ions in the hot plasma. The Lawsoncriterion was not formulated for fusion methods that essentiallyeliminate electron radiation loss considerations by avoiding the use ofhot, heavily ionized plasmas with highly mobile electrons.

Because the conventional thinking holds that high temperatures andstrongly ionized plasma are required, it was further believed in the artthat inexpensive physical containment of the reaction was impossible.Accordingly, methods being pursued in the art are directed to complexand expensive schemes to contain the reaction, such as those used inmagnetic confinement systems (e.g., the ITER tokamak) and in inertialconfinement systems (e.g., NIF laser).

In fact, at least one source in the prior art expressly acknowledges thebelieved impossibility of containing a fusion reaction with a physicalstructure: “The simplest and most obvious method with which to provideconfinement of a plasma is by a direct-contact with material walls, butis impossible for two fundamental reasons: the wall would cool theplasma and most wall materials would melt. We recall that the fusionplasma here requires a temperature of ˜10⁸ K while metals generally meltat a temperature below 5000 K.” (“Principles of Fusion Energy,” A. A.Harms et. al.)

SUMMARY

The present inventions break the prior art paradigms by, among otherthings, increasing the reactant density, essentially eliminatingelectron radiation losses, and combinations of these, by avoiding theuse of a strongly ionized plasma, modifying the Coulomb barrier and thusincreasing the reaction cross section, and essentially eliminating theneed for confinement to contain the fusion reaction. Such approachesmake Lawson's criterion inapposite.

The importance and value of achieving economically viable controlledfusion has long been recognized and sought after in the art. Controlledfusion may have applications in energy production, propulsion, materialcreation, material formation, the production of useful isotopes,generation of directed energetic beams and particles, and many other keyfields and applications. In the energy production area, controlledfusion has been envisioned to provide a solution to global energy andenvironmental challenges, including supply, distribution, cost, andadverse effects from using hydrocarbon or other alternative fuelsources. Accordingly, there has been a long-standing and unfulfilledneed for a controlled fusion reaction, and the clean energy and otherbenefits and beneficial uses that are associated with such a reaction.This need, however, has primarily focused on using controlled fusion forlarger, or macro applications, such as providing power to a city,factory or building.

There has further been a long-standing need for reliable and dependablesmall power sources for use in small devices such as cell phones,robotics, hearing aids, pace makers, laptop computers, smart phones,hand held electronic devices and the like, as well as for newer,smaller, and emerging technologies, such as, nano-technologies,micro-circuits, nano-circuits and micro-robotics. While batterytechnologies and other power sources have been rapidly evolving andbecoming smaller, and smaller, in many instances they have failed tokeep up with the needs of smaller and smaller devices, and the need forhaving power supplies that do not readily become depleted.Unfortunately, in many cases, battery technology may be becoming thelimiting factor to the further advancement of these small electronictechnologies.

The present methods, devices and systems for conducting fusion reactionssolve these and other problems, deficiencies, and inadequaciesassociated with prior attempts to create a viable controlled fusionsystem, and short comings in conventional small, micro-, nano-, andsub-nano-electronic devices. Further, the present inventions avoid therisks associated with conventional fission power generation. Moreover,available aneutronic embodiments of controlled fusion avoid thepotential issues associated with managing neutrons produced in otherfusion reactions, and make devices utilizing these embodiments readilyusable in devices that are closely associated with living entities,e.g., a pace maker. Thus, the present inventions, among other things,solve these needs by providing the articles of manufacture, devices andprocesses taught, disclosed and claimed herein.

Thus, there are provided the methods, systems, articles and devices ofthe present specification, drawings and claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an embodiment of a controlled fusiondevice in accordance with the present inventions.

FIG. 1A is an enlarged cross sectional view of a portion of theembodiment of FIG. 1.

FIG. 2 is a schematic view of an embodiment of a controlled fusiondevice in accordance with the present inventions.

FIG. 3 is a graphic representation of an embodiment of a high densityelectron field of the embodiment of FIG. 2 in accordance with thepresent inventions.

FIG. 4 is a schematic view of an embodiment of a controlled fusiondevice in accordance with the present inventions.

FIGS. 5A-5C show the potential energy curve of a two particle system inwhich a first nucleus is approaching a second nucleus in accordance withthe present inventions.

FIG. 6 is a perspective view of an embodiment of an array of controlledfusion devices in accordance with the present inventions.

FIG. 7 shows a three layer base structure in accordance with an exampleembodiment.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

In general, the present inventions relate to methods, apparatuses,devices, and systems for creating, measuring, controlling, conducting,and optimizing fusion activities of nuclei. In particular, the presentinventions relate to, among other things, fusion activities that areconducted individually on a very small scale; and for the utilization ofthe energy, materials, and particles that are produced from thesesmall-scale fusion activities. The present inventions further relatedto, among other things, small devices for causing and controlling thesesmall fusion activities, and utilizing the products of these fusionactivities, as well as, the aggregation of these smaller devices and theutilization of the aggregation.

Generally, the present methods, apparatuses, and systems utilize thecreation of submicron regions, and preferably nano regions (e.g., aboutone cubic nanometer, nm³, 10⁻²⁷ m³), or smaller, of high chargedensities to provide for controlled fusion reactions, and preferablywith simple containment schemes (without the need for any complicatedcontainment schemes), and more preferably without the need for anymagnetic fields. Further, embodiments of the present inventions createor modify quantum and other effects to provide for, or enhance, thefusion reaction.

In general, embodiments of the controlled fusion devices cause electronsto form an area of high charge density associated within a basestructure containing the reactants. In an embodiment the base structurehas, is, or forms a lattice, mesh, cage, pores, other substructures, andcombinations and variations of these. The base structure, and preferablythe substructure, holds, carries, encapsulates, encompasses,replenishes, exposes, contains, supports, maintains and combinations andvariations of these reactants. The high charge density associated withthe base structure can be provided by causing the electrons to move in amanner that results in their collection, agglomerating, coming together,increasing density and combinations and variation of these.

Embodiments of the base structure material include, for examplepalladium, tungsten, boron hydride, titanium, tantalum, getter materialsfor hydrogen and low molecular weight gasses, and other materials thatcan support or carry the fusion fuel. The base structure may be acomposite material, an alloy, a metal-ceramic, it may contain layers,the layers may be of the same or different materials, the layers mayhave the same or different substructures, initially underlying layersmay over time become exposed to the reaction as the device operates, andcombinations and variations of these and other configurations. Coatingsmay be used on the surface of the base structure, for example, gold,copper, silver or other conducting materials, and preferably materialshaving good conductivity, and having low resistance.

Embodiments of the base structure have a discontinuity. Thisdiscontinuity can be an area of discontinuity, or more preferably one ormore points of discontinuity (It being understood that the point(s) maystill have some area, but as used herein the point(s) of discontinuitygenerally refers to a generally circular shape, generally square shape,generally rectangular shape, generally elliptical shape or other shapehaving an area of about 1 μm² or less, about 500 nm² or less, about 100nm² or less, 50 nm² or less and preferably about 10 nm² or less).Generally, this discontinuity is associated with, preferably adjacent,and more preferably central to the area of high electron charge density.The discontinuity may be a knife edge, it may be an annular knife edge,and preferably it may be the tip, e.g., point, of a tapered member, suchas a solid or tubular nano-needle. The base structure may contain one,two or more discontinuities. When multiple discontinuities are presentthey may be the same or different, for example, in terms of shapeconfiguration, intended reactants or other attributes.

The fusion fuel may be any of the materials identified in thisspecification, as suitable for a fusion reaction or known to be usefulin such a reaction, or later discovered to be useful, that can be loadedor otherwise incorporated into, or held by, the base structure, and morepreferably the substructure of the base structure. Preferably, thefusion fuel is, for example hydrogen, deuterium, Boron-11, Helium-3, andmixtures of these. The fusion fuel is loaded or reloaded into the basestructure. Preferably, the fusion fuel is loaded or reloaded into thediscontinuity, and most preferably is load into the area where the highelectron density will be present. Thus, in a preferred embodiment thefusion fuel is heavily loaded into the volume of the base structure thatis in the area of the discontinuity and the area of high electrondensity, with the fusion fuel being held by the substructure.

It addition to the fusion fuel being preloaded into the base structure,the fusion fuel can be added continuously, batch wise, generated in situduring the fusion reaction (e.g., generation of ³He), between operationsand combinations and variations of these. Thus, for example, a palladiumtubular nano-needle base structure, having a closed tip to a needlepoint, can have its inner space filled with excess hydrogen (or in fluidcommunication with a source of hydrogen) so that as the hydrogen isdepleted during operation the excess hydrogen will migrate, e.g.,getter, into the base structure and thus re-load the structure withfusion fuel.

In an embodiment, the device can be operated without reloading orreplenishing of the fusion fuel in the base structure. The device couldbe created with many base structures, only some of which operate at anygiven time, wherein the additional base structures would be activatedwhen the fusion fuel is fully or partially depleted from the basestructures that had previously been activated. Such an device wouldinclude a monitoring and control mechanism to successively turn off andon base structures in a desired manner.

The volume of fusion fuel, e.g., hydrogen to the volume of basestructure material, e.g., palladium, can be significantly larger,providing advantages to the fusion reaction. The volume of fusion fuelcan be 2× larger or more than the volume of base structure material, itcan be 3× larger or more, it can be 5× larger or more, and it can be 7×larger or more, depending upon, among other things, the particularfusion fuel(s) used, base material used, and substructure present. Forhydrogen fuel, palladium base structure embodiments, the hydrogen can beloaded to 8× the volume of the palladium.

Preferably, the fusion fuel can be loaded or reloaded into the basestructure to particle densities of 10¹⁵/cc or more, 10¹⁸/cc or more,10²⁰/cc or more, 10²²/cc or more, and more preferably about 10²³/cc. Itbeing noted that the fusion fuel densities of the present inventions aresubstantially greater than the densities obtained in the larger magneticcontainment fusion devices, such as the Tokamak reactors (reported to belimited to particle densities of 10¹⁴/cc).

The fusion fuel can be loaded or reloaded into the base structure bygettering, provided that the base structure-fusion fuel type exhibitthis effect. The fusion fuel can be loaded or reloaded by any means ortechnique known to the art, or later developed, to incorporate orinclude smaller atomic scale particles into a larger matrix orsupporting structure. The fusion fuel itself, may also be the basestructure.

The region of high electron density can be provided by using a microwavegenerator, radio frequency (RF) wave generator, or similar device,associated with the base structure. In operation, the high electrondensity generator causes the electrons to move in a first directionalong generally the surface of the base structure toward thediscontinuity (forward electron flow), and then quickly reverses theflow of the electrons away from the discontinuity (reverse electronflow). In this manner the forward and reverse electron flows alonggenerally the surface of the substructure creates a high electrondensity at the discontinuity. The base structure can be coated with amaterial to enhance or facilitate this flow of electrons along itssurface, such as a gold coating, copper coating, silver coating or acoating of other conducting materials, and preferably materials havinggood conductivity, and having low resistance. This area of high electrondensity is present, e.g., exists, at its peak periodically. Typicallythe periodicity of the high electron density peak is at about the samefrequency as that of the high electron density generator; although theremay be doubling, and other effects that result in a differences betweenthe two. For example the generator may operate at a wavelength of fromabout 10 microns to about 0.1 micron. The generator can also operate atwavelengths of x ray and gamma ray to reach higher electron densities.The power for these generators is minimal, requiring about 1 mW to about10 mW, and generally less than about 1 mW per discontinuity.

A laser may also be directed on the discontinuity and establish asimilar forward and reverse flow of electrons to establish an area ofhigh electron density peaks. Laser wavelengths of from about_10 microns_to about_0.1 micron_, The laser power for the laser beam can be fromabout_1_nW to_1_mW, about_1_mW to about_10_mW and generally less thanabout_1_mW. The base structure can be coated with, or made from amaterial, that is selected to optimize the laser material interactionand more preferably to optimize both the laser material interaction andthe flow of electrons.

In addition to the laser, microwave generator and RF generator, othermanners of, devices for, generating the region of high density electronscan be used, for example magnetrons with cavities which can bundleelectrons together to high densities or nonlinear effects in anelectron-beam plasma where the electron wave can collapse threedimensionally to very small locations with high electron densities.

The region of high density electrons, in particular embodiments, canhave particle densities of 10¹⁵/cc or more, 10¹⁸/cc or more, 10²⁰/cc ormore, 10²²/cc or more, and about 10²³/cc or more. The electric field forthese regions can be greater than about 10⁸ V/m (volts/meter), greaterthan about 10⁹ V/m, greater than about 10¹⁰ V/m and greater than about10¹¹ V/m.

The fusion fuel material may be, for example, hydrogen-1, boron-11,lithium-6, lithium-7, deuterium, helium-3, nitrogen-15, tritium. It maybe advantageous to use molecular compounds that are good electronemitters, for example boron nitride or lanthanum hexaboride or ceriumhexaboride and combinations and variations of these and other types ofmaterials.

It should be understood that the figures in this specification aregenerally representative of very small components (e.g., micron, nano,and pico sizes). Thus, the figures are not to scale, and areillustrative of the relationships, structures and components of thevarious embodiments, and should be viewed as part of, and in the contextof, the entirety of the teachings of this specification.

Turning to FIG. 1 there is shown a perspective view of a section of anembodiment of a base structure 110 for use in an embodiment of a fusiondevice of the present invention. The base structure 110 is a tubularelectrode 100, which has a tapering section 101, to form a tip 102,e.g., a point, which is a discontinuity. When a high-density electrongenerator (not shown) is applied to the electrode 100, electron movementas shown by double arrow 103 occurs. With the arrow 103 a toward the tip102 being the forward electron movement and the arrow 103 b toward thetubular section being the reverse electron movement. The area of highelectron density is shown as 102 and the high electric field region is104. Although it is presently believed that this is primarily a surfaceeffect, the scope of protection to the present inventions should not beso limited.

The movement of the electrons is preferably collective, coherent, andboth. Thus, it is theorized that this collective and coherent motion ofelectrons is similar to, and may be, the type of electron movementexhibited in superconductive materials. This collective and coherentelectron motion, of the present inventions, takes place at room andelevated temperatures. Thus, the present invention provides for ambienttemperature and above superconductivity, and superconductivity likebehaviors in the movement of electrons.

Turning to FIG. 1A there is shown a cross sectional schematic view ofthe tip 102 and tapering section 101 of electrode 100. The substructure105 of the base structure 110, has fusion fuel materials, e.g., 106 a,106 b, 106 c, 106 d.

In operation it is believed that the creation of the area of highelectron density enables, facilitates, or furthers the fusion reactionof the fusion fuel. It is theorized that among other things, thepresence of the high electron density lowers the coulomb barrier, andpreferably creates a negative well, that permits the fusion fuel, e.g.,106 b, 106 c, to fuse. Further, it is theorized that the highlylocalized electron density, creates a ponderomotive force that drivesthe fusion fuel together, and also drives the electrons into thesubstructure of the base material, enhancing the fusion reaction of thefusion fuel.

In one of the embodiments of the present invention, as shown in FIG. 7,there is a three layer structure that will produce large electric fieldenhancement. The geometry of generalized discontinuity is shown in FIG.7. By using a femtosecond laser, the local surface plasmon (LSP) isexcited. By optimizing parameters, a large field enhancement at resonantfrequency was observed. Calculation result shows that near the Pd layer,the field enhancement induced high electric potential which have thesame magnitude of coulomb barrier between two deuterium nucleis, whichmeans it can overcome the coulomb repulsion and extremely enhance theprobability of fusion reaction.

In another embodiment, the excitation source, e.g. laser, diode laser,or RF/microwave generator, is integrated in or near the base structureof the device to optimizing coupling of radiation and miniaturization ofthe device.

The submicron controlled fusion device can be associated with a devicefor generating electricity. The devices would include, for example,sensor chips that have been adapted to generate a current, voltage orboth in response to the heat generated by the fusion reaction, inresponse to the charged fusion product particles generated by the fusionreaction and both. Thus, as examples, (A) a radiation detection typediode can be adapted to produce electricity from the fusion products,(B) a thermoelectric device could convert a portion of the heat energyinto electric current, (C) a fluid could be forced to flow, expand orincur a phase change so as create some electricity or other usefulenergy. The devices for generating electricity from the controlledfusion reaction could also include (D) mechanisms to slow the resultingcharged particles by an electromagnetic field so as to effect a directconversion to electricity and (E) mechanisms to put small electrodesadjacent to the discontinuity so as to have charged particles collidewith one or the other of the electrodes and thereby induce a current orto recharge a connected battery or capacitor. The foregoing means couldinclude combinations of the foregoing. For example, if the means ofdirect conversion to electricity was only partially efficient, it couldbe deployed in combination with a thermoelectric device to createelectricity from the heat remaining after deployment of the directconversion mechanism.

Although not required, the electrodes of the device could also belocated in, or have a source of fusion fuel around their exterior, suchas being contained in a closed micro-vessel, filled with, or havinghydrogen flowed through it.

Generally, the term “about” is meant to encompass a variance or range of±10%, the experimental or instrument error associated with obtaining thestated value, and preferably the larger of these.

Embodiments of the present inventions may utilize quantum,electrostatic, mechanical, or other effects including, among otherthings, large E-fields, high electron densities, ponderomotive forces,modification or change of the Coulomb barrier, modification or change ofthe reaction cross section, space charge or electron shielding effects,the use of neutrals, ion-neutral coupling, nuclear magnetic momentinteraction, spin polarization, magnetic dipole-dipole interaction, highparticle density materials, compression forces associated withcentrifugal forces or ponderomotive forces, phase transitions ofhydrogen, positive feedback mechanisms, and modification and variationsof these and other effects. All references in this specification tomodifying, changing, lowering, reducing or eliminating the barrierinclude means by which the Coulomb barrier is offset by, or its effectis reduced by, the presence of one or more other features (e.g., highelectron densities) even though the Coulomb barrier itself (independentof such features) remains unchanged.

It is noted that there is no requirement to provide or address thetheory underlying the novel and groundbreaking fusion methods, devicesand systems that are the subject of the present inventions.Nevertheless, these theories are provided to further advance the art inthis important area. The theories put forth in this specification,unless expressly stated otherwise, in no way limit, restrict or narrowthe scope of protection to be afforded the claimed inventions. Thesetheories many not be required or practiced to utilize the presentinventions. It is further understood that the present inventions maylead to new, and heretofore unknown theories to explain the fusionmethods, devices and system of the present inventions, and such laterdeveloped theories shall not serve to diminish or limit the scope ofprotection afforded the claimed inventions.

Modification or Change of the Coulomb Barrier

In order to fuse, two nuclei must come into contact; however, nuclei arevery small (on the order of 10⁻¹⁵ m), and because they are positivelycharged, they are electrostatically repulsed by one another. Thepotential energy curve of a two particle system 501 in which a firstnucleus 502 is approaching a second nucleus is illustrated in FIG. 5A.On the horizontal axis, x is the distance between the two nuclei. Thesystem potential 501 is near zero when the first nucleus is located faraway from the second nucleus, and increases as the first nucleusapproaches the second nucleus. The system potential 501 is the sum ofthe repulsive (positive) Coulomb potential and the attractive (negative)strong nuclear force potential. Once the two nuclei are very close, atdistance x_(n) apart (where x_(n) is approximately equal to the sum ofthe radii of the two fusing nuclei), the system potential 501 becomesnegative due to the effect of the strong nuclear force. Thus, the term“Coulomb barrier” is used to describe the difficulty of bringing the twonuclei into contact, either by getting through or getting above thepotential curve shown in FIG. 5A.

FIG. 5A labels the kinetic energy of the two-nucleus system, “ϵ,” asexpressed by:ϵ=½m _(r)ν²where ν=ν₁−ν₂, ν₁ and ν₂ are the velocities of the two nuclei, and m_(r)is the reduced mass of the system, given by:

$m_{r} = \frac{m_{1}m_{2}}{m_{1} + m_{2}}$where m₁ and m₂ are the masses of the two nuclei. Classical mechanicsholds that, when the nuclei are approaching one another, ϵ must begreater than the height of the Coulomb barrier for the nuclei to comeinto contact. However, quantum mechanics allows for “tunneling” througha potential barrier, thus making fusion reactions possible when ϵ isbelow this threshold. However, the magnitude of the barrier stillpresents an impediment to tunneling, such that reactions with largerCoulomb barriers (e.g., higher, wider, or both) are generally lesslikely to occur than those with smaller barriers.

Embodiments of the present invention may lower or reduce the Coulombbarrier, and may eliminate it to the extent of creating a well, bycreating, modifying, or utilizing effects that have negative(attractive) potentials. Such a negative potential is illustrated inFIG. 5B. In this figure, a negative potential 505 is shown, and theadditive effect of the negative potential 505 and the initial systempotential 503 creates a new, resultant system potential 504, in whichthe Coulomb barrier is lower.

Thus, for example, embodiments of the present invention may lower orreduce the Coulomb barrier through the use of effects such as: spacecharge or electron shielding effects; large E-fields, high electrondensities, the use of neutrals; ion-neutral coupling; or nuclearmagnetic moment interaction, spin polarization, or dipole-dipoleinteraction effects; and combinations and variations of these and othereffects. FIG. 5C illustrates the resultant system potential 504 thatarises from combining the initial system potential 503 withponderomotive force 506, an electron shielding potential, e.g., the highdensity electrons and large E-field 507, and a nuclear magnetic momentinteraction potential 508. Each of these alone and in combinationreduces the Coulomb barrier, which makes it easier for the nuclei totunnel through or overcome the potential barrier, thus increasing theprobability that the fusion reaction will take place.

Ponderomotive Force

In general, a ponderomotive force is a force that is created from anoscillating electric field. The ponderomotive force affects bothpositive and negative charged particles the same, i.e., moving them inthe same direction. Thus, the ponderomotive force is a rare case wherethe sign of the particle charge does not change the direction of theforce, unlike the case with the Lorentz force. Thus, in embodiments ofthe present invention the ponderomotive force has the effect ofcrushing, or compacting the substructure containing the fusion fuelforcing the fusion fuel into contact and to fuse. The ponderomotiveforce F_(p) is expressed by

${Fp} = \frac{e^{2}{\nabla E^{2}}}{4\; m\;\omega^{2}}$where e is the electrical charge of the particle, m is the mass, ω isthe angular frequency of oscillation of the field, and E is theamplitude of the electric field.

From this equation it is readily seen that the high E results in astrong ponderomotive force. However if the E field is at a highfrequency, such as above the ion plasma frequency, then only the lightelectrons will be influenced by these fields. The heavier ions willnonetheless be influenced by the electron motion through the ambipolarelectric field, which is the DC field generated when electrons areseparated from the ions.

Electron Shielding

An advantage of using weakly ionized plasma is that the reactantslargely comprise neutral atoms. The electrons interposed between thenuclei shield the repulsive Coulomb force between the positively chargednuclei. This phenomenon affects the Coulomb repulsion and may reduce theCoulomb barrier. In addition, using reactants that are highly efficientelectron emitters introduces a cloud of electrons, a negative spacecharge, between the positively charged reactants, which further enhancesthis shielding effect. In an embodiment of the present invention, thehigh density electrons are driven by ponderomotive forces into thesubstructure, amongst the fusion fuel. It is believed that theseelectrons in the substructure provide an electron shielding effect whichreduces the Coulomb barrier and enhances the fusion reaction rate. In afurther embodiment, there is present in the system a material with ageometry or surface profile that creates non-uniform electric fields.Thus, by way of example, a surface with a dendritic profile may bedesirable to generate very high localized electric fields for fusion.

Nuclear Magnetic Moment Interactions

Many nuclei have an intrinsic “spin,” a form of angular momentum, whichis associated with their own internal spinning motion and resultantcurrent. The magnetic field lines form as though one end of the nucleuswere a magnetic north pole, and the other end were a magnetic southpole, leading the nucleus to be referred to as a “magnetic dipole,” andthe strength and orientation of the dipole described as the “nuclearmagnetic moment”, which is represented as a vector.

Nuclear magnetic moments play a role in quantum tunneling. Specifically,when the magnetic moments of two nuclei are parallel, an attractiveforce between the two nuclei is created. As a result, the totalpotential barrier between two nuclei with parallel magnetic moments islowered, and a tunneling event is more likely to occur. The reverse istrue when two nuclei have antiparallel magnetic moments, the potentialbarrier is increased, and tunneling is less likely to occur.

When the magnetic moment of a particular type of nucleus is positive,the nucleus tends to align its magnetic moment in the direction of anapplied magnetic field. Conversely, when the moment is negative, thenucleus tends to align antiparallel to an applied field. Most nuclei,including most nuclei which are of interest as potential reactants, havepositive magnetic moments (p, D, T, ⁶Li, ⁷Li, and ¹¹B all have positivemoments; ³He, and ¹⁵N have negative moments). In an embodiment of acontrolled fusion device a magnetic field may be provided that alignsthe magnetic moments in approximately the same direction at every pointwithin the device where a magnetic field is present. This results in areduction of the total potential energy barrier between nuclei when thefirst and second working materials have nuclear magnetic moments whichare either both positive or both negative. It is believed that thisleads to an increased rate of tunneling and a greater occurrence offusion reactions. This effect may also be referred to as spinpolarization or magnetic dipole-dipole interaction. In addition, thegyration of a nucleus about a magnetic field line also contributes todetermining the total angular momentum of the nucleus.

Hyperpolarization of Nuclei. Nuclei such as ³He can be polarized bycollisions with alkali metal vapors or directly by RF fields in a weakmagnetic field. This process can bring more than 90% of ³He atoms allaligned along the same direction, thereby increasing the attractivenessamong them. The ³He ³He fusion reactions lead to the formation of 4Heatom plus two energetic protons, a very desirable fusion reaction,because there are no neutrons in the product and the energy yield isvery high, above 10 MeV.

Thus, although magnetic fields are not necessary with preferredembodiments of the present invention, e.g., “amagnetic”—a device free ofadditional, induced or provided magnetic fields, to obtain a controlledfusion reaction, they may be utilized to enhance, or optimize the fusionreaction and the performance of the device.

Modification or Change of the Reaction Cross Section

The probability of a fusion reaction between a pair of nuclei isexpressed by the reaction cross section, “σ.” The cross section istypically measured in experiments as a function of ϵ (energy) bybombarding a stationary target of nuclei with a beam of nuclei. Thecross section is normally defined such that:

$\sigma = \frac{B}{I}$where B is the number of reactions per unit time per target nucleus, andI is the number of incident particles per unit time per unit targetarea. When cross section is defined and measured in this way, eachfusion reaction will have a certain, specific cross section at aparticular ϵ for a given system.

The fusion reaction rate per unit volume in a particular reactor isnormally described by:

$R = {\frac{n_{1}n_{2}}{1 + \delta_{12}}\left\langle {\sigma\; v} \right\rangle}$where δ₁₂=1 if the first nucleus and the second nucleus are the sametype of nuclei (e.g.,

deuterium is being fused with deuterium) and δ₁₂=0 otherwise, and

σν

is the “averaged reactivity” of the system, defined as:

σν

=∫₀ ^(∞)σ(ν)νƒ(ν)dνwhere ƒ(ν) is the distribution function of the relative velocities,normalized in such a way that ∫₀ ^(∞)ƒ(ν)dν=1. When the second nucleusis at rest,

σν

=σν; however, the preceding definition accounts for situations in whichthe second nucleus moves, and each pair of interacting nuclei may have adifferent relative velocity ν.

The rate of fusion energy release is then given by:

$\frac{dW}{dt} = {RE}$where W is the total fusion energy per unit volume released and E is theenergy released by a single reaction (E=8.68 MeV in the case of p-¹¹Bfusion).

The probability of the two nuclei coming into contact through a quantumtunneling event is described by the tunneling barrier transparency, “T,”such that a higher value of T corresponds to greater likelihood oftunneling. Since tunneling is the primary mechanism by which fusionoccurs, cross section is proportional to T (σ∝T). T is approximated by:

$T \approx e^{- \sqrt{\frac{\epsilon_{G}}{\epsilon}}}$where e is Euler's number, and ϵ_(G) is the modified energy of theCoulomb barrier. When the two nuclei are a distance x≥x_(T) apart, ϵ_(G)is described by:ϵ_(G)∝∫_(x) _(n) ^(x) ^(T) q ₁φ(x)dxwhere, q₁ is the charge of the first nucleus, φ(x) is the potentialexpressed as a function of x, and x_(T) is the classical turning pointat which φ(x_(T))=ϵ.

As a result of these relationships, a higher value of φ (e.g., largerCoulomb barrier) will tend to translate into higher ϵ_(G), which in turnwill tend to lead to lower T, lower σ, lower R, and, when E>0, lower

$\frac{dW}{dt}$for any specific system. Thus, systems in which potential φ is high willtend to experience fewer fusion events and lower fusion energy releaserates, and systems in which potential φ is low will tend to experiencemore fusion events and higher fusion energy release rates. As discussedabove, reducing the Coulomb barrier is equivalent to reducing potentialφ, and embodiments of the present invention may employ these techniquesto generally increase the cross section, σ; this also increases thefusion reaction rate.High Particle Density

An embodiment of the present invention, instead of creating a stronglyionized plasma to obtain a high particle density, loads the substructurewith significantly more, e.g., high density of, particles than isbelieved to be obtainable by any plasma. As the particles areessentially held in a solid, or are a solid material, this approach doesnot give rise to plasma instabilities, and so particle density (n₁ andn₂) can be many orders of magnitude higher than with a strongly ionizedplasma, and many orders of magnitude higher than obtainable with weaklyionized plasma where its neutral density is at least 10¹⁷/cm³. In anembodiment of the present invention, particle density is throughout theentire volume of the device. Further, the compression induced by thecentrifugal force leads to an increased density of particles in theregion in which fusion events are expected to be concentrated, leadingto densities of about 10¹⁸/cm³ or higher in the region of the devicewhere reactants are concentrated.

In addition, an embodiment of the present invention uses boron compoundsin a solid form, which have a particle density on the order of 10²³/cm³.Thus, in the region where fusion reactions are thought to beconcentrated, the present invention achieves particle densities in aphysical container many orders of magnitude greater than other methodsknown in the art (for example, it is believed that Tokamak reactors havenot achieved sustained particle densities greater than about 10¹⁴/cm³).

An advantage of the present inventions is that they effectively suppressradiation losses due to electron bremsstrahlung. Conventional fusionreactors such as Tokamaks employ hot, highly ionized plasma.Electron-ion interaction, resulting in bremsstrahlung and cyclotronradiation, is a significant source of energy loss and is one of thereasons such systems have not been able to satisfy the Lawson criterion.However, the high-density, lightly ionized, and colder plasma employedin embodiments of the present inventions suppresses electron mobilityand greatly reduces radiative losses.

Phase Transition of Hydrogen Under High Pressures

Hydrogen atoms under high pressure compression can become liquid orsolid metals, depending on the compressional forces and their states ofrotation. In either the liquid or solid states, the density is manyorders of magnitude higher than that in the gaseous state. The totalreaction rate will be correspondingly higher according to the product ofthe particle densities of the two reactants.

In addition, metallic hydrogen becomes highly conductive or even asuperconductor with zero resistance. This increases the overallconductivity of the entire system, lowering the resistive loss and theinput energy required. Thus, the overall efficiency of such a system isgreater, making it easier to attain a large Q factor and thecorresponding energy gain.

Positive Feedback

The present invention may generate particles during operation. In somecases these particles may provide benefit to the device's function. Inembodiments utilizing ionized particles, the creation of ionizingradiation may further enhance additional fusion by increasing,modifying, maintaining, or improving the ionization or a workingmaterial or plasma.

The key feature of this new fusion concept depends on the screeningeffect of electrons around the neutrals. It is expected that the fusionprocess will release more electrons through heating or collisions withfusion products. These processes could cause larger electron densityfluctuations, including Langmuir collapses [1, 12]. This type ofpositive feedback generates stronger screening effects and could createsustainable fusion process for energy production.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are provided to illustrate various embodiments ofcontrolled submicron fusion methods, devices and systems of the presentinventions. These examples are for illustrative purposes, and should notbe viewed as, and do not otherwise limit, the scope of the presentinventions.

Example 1

Turning to FIG. 2 there is shown a schematic of a submicron controlledfusion device 200. The device 200 has an electrode 201 a, which is partof the base structure 201. The device 200 has a second electrode 201 b,which is also part of the base structure 201. The electrodes 201 a and201 b have substructures that contain the fusion fuel. The electrodes201 a, 201 b, have tips 203 a, 203 b, which are discontinuities.Electrode 201 a is connected to high density electron generator 204 bylead line 202 a. Electrode 201 b is connected to high density electrongenerator 204 by lead line 202 b. The high density electron generator204, in the embodiment of this example is an RF generator operating at1.63 GHz. The dimensions for the device 200 are provided in the figureand are in inches.

Turning to FIG. 3 there is shown a schematic representation of theelectron fields that will be generated by the device 200. FIG. 3 is aplan view, looking down the y-axis, of the tip 203 b and electrode 201b. It being understood that a similar electron field will be generatedby electrode 201 a. The E fields generated are represented by thevarious color areas, area 220 is 3000 αV/m, 221 is 2500 αV/m, 222 is2350 αV/m, 223 is 1500 αV/m, and 224 is 650 αV/m where α is aproportional constant which depends on the generator voltage.

Example 2

The embodiment of example 1, has the electrodes made from palladium, andare coated with a thin layer of gold. The fusion fuel is a 50:50 mixtureof hydrogen-1 and deuterium, and loaded to a particle density of10²²⁻/cc.

Example 3

The device of Example 2 has been operated in a cloud chamber to test thebehavior of electrons. According to theory and past experiments thecloud chamber will show the emission of fusion product particles fromthe electrodes. The fusion products will include helium-3.

Example 4

A submicron controlled fusion device is associated with a detection chipthat has been adapted to convert the fusion product particles intoelectricity.

Example 5

The electrical generation assembly of Example 4 powers a circuit in anelectronic device. The electronic device can be a cell phone, a hearingaid, a pace maker, a glucose pump, an in situ diagnostic and meteringsystem for the sensing of conditions, and delivery of medicaments. Inembodiments, the device could be an independent unit with a primaryfunction of providing electricity and/or heat to some other device(e,g., computers, cars, homes, etc.) including, by being connected toprovide electricity and/or heat temporarily to one device (e.g., a car)and then disconnected from that device and connected to another device(e.g., a home). The development of such independent devices could alsoallow the rollout of electricity to lesser developed countries withoutthe concurrent need to build transmission and distribution systems inthe same way that lesser developed countries were able to buildcommunications networks primarily by wireless means without having tobuild the wire infrastructure that the developed countries had built forcommunications prior to the development of wireless technologies.

Example 6

Turning to FIG. 4, there is shown a schematic diagram of a submicronfusion device of the present inventions in a vacuum chamber testingassembly.

Example 7

Turning to FIG. 6, there is shown a perspective schematic view of anarray 600 of several hundred substrates e.g., 601 a, 601 b that havebeen arranged on a planer support structure 603. The substrates eachhave a discontinuity, e.g., 602, which in this embodiment is amicro-point or tip. Each substrate, which in this embodiment is anelectrode loaded with a fusion fuel, is subjected to a high electrondensity generator, which when activated drives the fusion reaction. Thecollective energy from the array can then be converted into electricalenergy, or other forms of energy as may be required. The substrate inthis embodiment can be Silica, Silicon carbide, or other suitablesubstrate.

Example 8 Estimate of Oscillating E Fields and the AssociatedPonderomotive Force—and Effective Potential

-   -   We assume a model of a dipole antenna driven by an oscillating        source of peak voltage of V_(osc)=300V at a frequency of 2 GHz.        During each cycle electrons are driven to the tapered tip of a        dipole which has a radius of a=10 nm and a lateral area of A=0.1        u×0.1 u (where u is one micron). The oscillating electric field,        E_(osc), is given approximately by V_(osc)/a. This high        frequency field acts only on electrons and gives rise to a        ponderomotive force F_(e) as a result of the gradient of the        electric field intensity⁷        F _(e)=−ω_(pe) ²/ω²[grad ε_(o) E _(osc) ²/2] newtons/m³    -   Electrons undergoes a drift motion driven by this ponderomotive        force F_(e); the ambipolar electric field generated by the        separation between electrons and ions transmit the same force to        ions.

Example 9 Equivalent Potential Φ Experienced by Ions

-   -   The force experienced by an ion, f_(ion), is obtained by        dividing the above force, F_(e), by the density of ions:        f _(ion) =−n _(e) /n _(i) n _(f)[grad ε_(o) E _(osc) ²/2]        newtons, where n _(f)=ε_(o)ω² m _(e) /e ²        For n _(e) /n _(i) ^(˜)1,n _(f)=4×10¹⁶/m³        f _(ion) ^(˜)8.8×10⁻¹²(300)²/8×10¹⁶(10⁻⁸)^(3˜)10 N.    -   The equivalent potential felt by the ion is then        Φ=f_(ion)x/q=10⁶ volts, the distance x between two D atoms being        taken to be 10⁻¹⁴ m where the repulsion barrier is greatest.    -   The equivalent potential is 10⁶ volts which is of the order of        the Coulomb barrier, resulting in fusion through quantum        tunneling.

Example 10

-   -   Consider nano-Au particles of 30 nm diameters.    -   Lasers of wavelengths corresponding to 2-4 eV energy are used to        excite surface plasmons.    -   Laser was focused onto surface of nano-particles and excite        Surface Plasmons.    -   Enhancement of near electric field was observed to be 100 from        plasma resonance.

Example 11 Calculation of Energy Density of Enhanced Electric FieldsOscillating at Surface Plasma Resonance at Laser Frequencies

-   -   Consider a pulsed 1 ns and 1 J laser focused to 50 nm: from        balance of energy flow        cε _(o) E ² _(osc) =P _(o) /A watt/m²        E ² _(osc) _(˜) 1.5×10²⁶ V²/m²    -   Taking the observed enhancement of E by 10² via SP resonance E²        _(osc) ^(˜)10³⁰ V²/m²    -   Laser-excited E² is 10⁹ larger than previous electric dipole        excitation at microwave frequencies. However the number density        of ions is larger.    -   The laser excitation might be more efficient than microwave        excitation. It can also be more easily implemented        experimentally.

Example 12 Equivalent Potential Φ Experienced by Ions

-   -   The force experienced by an ion, f_(ion), is obtained by        dividing the ponderomotive force, F_(e), by the density of ions:        f _(ion) =−n _(e) /n _(i) n _(f)[grad ε_(o) E _(osc) ²/2]        newtons, where n _(f)=ε_(o)ω² m _(e) /e ²        For n _(e) /n _(i) ^(˜)1,n _(f)=1.6×10²⁵/m³, taking gradient        length^(˜)10 nm        f _(ion) ^(˜)8.8×10⁻¹²10³⁰/3.2×10²⁵10^(−8˜)27 N.    -   The equivalent potential felt by the ion is then        D=f_(ion)x/q=2.7×10⁶ volts, the distance x between two D atoms        being taken to be 10⁻¹⁴ m where the repulsion barrier is        greatest. The equivalent potential is 2.7×10⁶ volts which is of        the order of the Coulomb barrier, resulting in fusion through        quantum tunneling.

Example 13

In an embodiment the fuel loaded into the base structure is aradioisotope. In this embodiment the decay of the radioisotope isregulated. In general, the Coulomb barrier acts as an impediment to thedecay of radioisotopes. The mechanisms described in these embodimentcould be deployed to reduce the Coulomb barrier so as to cause the decayof a radioisotope to occur at a faster rate than the natural “half-life”for such radioisotope.

The ability to increase the rate of decay of a radioisotope could beuseful for the treatment of fission nuclear waste. One particularlyfavorable application would be to isolate and treat the most dangerousmaterials (whether elements or isotopes) with long half-lives so as toreduce such materials to stable (or at least less dangerous) elements orisotopes and to avoid having to construct storage mechanisms that needto be effective for very long periods (often many generations).

The ability to increase the rate of decay of a radioisotope could alsobe useful to create a device that would rely on the release of chargedenergetic particles for the production of electricity. By being able toincrease the rate of decay of a radioisotope, the power output of thedevice could be materially increased without having to increase theamount of radioisotope that would need to be loaded into the device.

Example 14

In an embodiment a computer simulation program is used to simulatefusion reactions, determine the characteristic of such reactions,determine candidates for fusion reactions, simulate and model the eventsarising from utilization of the sub-micron and other fusion processesand devices disclosed herein and incorporated herein by reference. Thecomputer simulation system has a computer, having a processor, a memoryor storage and a human machine interface. The system has a program, dataand both, associated with (e.g., the program, and the data, could beresident on the machine, on a server, in the cloud, etc.) it. Preferablythe program has the following packages to provide calculations andpresent predictive data and information. These packages may be basedupon actual data that is provided or stored in the system, frompublished data and from observed data. The program preferably has thefollowing: a package for utilizing, modeling and both, high speedcylindrical rotation, and associated centrifugal forces; a package forutilizing, modeling and both, an array of electron emitters, which canbe programmed to control the number of emitted electrons; a package forutilizing, modeling and both, fusion reactions and interactions, in thesub-atomic domain, including the collective behavior of electrons, ionsand neutrals, the dynamics and interrelationship of the particles; apackage for utilizing, modeling and both, diagnostics such as NMR, massanalyzers, chemical analyzers, and optical analyzers; a package forutilizing, modeling and both, electromagnetic radiations, basicinteractions and controls for these radiations; a package for utilizing,modeling and both, energy production products to be (that are capableof, or their capability to be) transformed to electricity; a package forutilizing, modeling and both, heat energy and accounting for this energyand its management and utilization; and package for utilizing, modelingand both, the transformation between heat and electrical power, whichwould include thermoelectric effects.

The various embodiments of devices, methods and systems set forth inthis specification may be used for various operations, other energyproduction, including the formation of materials. Additionally, theseembodiments, for example, may be used with systems and operations thatmay be developed in the future; and with existing systems and operationsthat may be modified, in-part, based on the teachings of thisspecification. Further, the various embodiments set forth in thisspecification may be used with each other, in whole or in part, and indifferent and various combinations. Thus, for example, theconfigurations provided in the various embodiments of this specificationmay be used with each other; and the scope of protection afforded thepresent inventions should not be limited to a particular embodiment,configuration or arrangement that is set forth in a particularembodiment, example, or in an embodiment in a particular Figure.

The invention may be embodied in other forms than those specificallydisclosed herein without departing from its spirit or essentialcharacteristics. The described embodiments are to be considered in allrespects only as illustrative and not restrictive.

What is claimed is:
 1. A system for enhancing electron screening comprising: an electrically conductive base structure, the base structure including light element atoms and containing free electrons; and a source of electromagnetic (EM) radiation applied to the base structure, the EM radiation having an excitation frequency, wherein the base structure is configured such that: in response to the EM radiation, the free electrons oscillate between at least two localized regions of the base structure; and the oscillation generates periodic charge density variations around a portion of the light element atoms that are disposed in the at least two localized regions.
 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the oscillation includes a plasmon oscillation.
 3. The system of claim 1, wherein the source of EM radiation comprises one or more of a laser, a diode, an electron generator, a voltage generator, a microwave generator, a radio wave generator, or a magnetron.
 4. The system of claim 1, wherein the excitation frequency is at least about 1 GHz.
 5. The system of claim 1, wherein the base structure comprises a nanostructure.
 6. The system of claim 1, wherein the source of EM radiation is configured to generate EM radiation having a wavelength of from about 10 microns to about 0.1 micron.
 7. The system of claim 1, wherein the source of EM radiation is configured to generate EM radiation having X-ray or gamma ray wavelengths.
 8. The system of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of the base structure includes at least one electrode having a tapering section and a tip, the tip being proximate to a discontinuity.
 9. The system of claim 8, wherein the discontinuity is configured as a knife edge, an annular knife edge, disposed at the tip.
 10. The system of claim 8, wherein the source of EM radiation is configured to operate at a power that is generally less than about 1 mW per discontinuity.
 11. The system of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of the base structure comprises a discontinuity.
 12. The system of claim 11, wherein at least a portion of the discontinuity comprises a shape that is at least partially generally circular, square, rectangular, elliptical, tubular, or pointed.
 13. The system of claim 11, wherein at least a portion of the discontinuity comprises a nanostructure.
 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the discontinuity is coated with a coating material to enhance or facilitate a flow of electrons along its surface.
 15. The system of claim 14, wherein the coating material is a gold, copper, silver or other conducting material.
 16. The system of claim 11, wherein the discontinuity has an area of about of about 10 nm² or less.
 17. The system of claim 11, wherein the base structure comprises two or more discontinuities.
 18. The system of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of the base structure comprises an array of discontinuities.
 19. The system of claim 18, wherein the array of discontinuities is coupled to at least one substrate arranged on a support structure.
 20. The system of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of the base structure is coated with a coating material to enhance or facilitate a flow of electrons along its surface.
 21. The system of claim 20, wherein the coating material is a gold, copper, silver or other conducting material.
 22. The system of claim 1, wherein the light element atoms have an atomic mass of 62 or less.
 23. The system of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of the base structure is configured to exhibit a ratio of light element atoms to other atoms of at least 2 to
 1. 24. The system of claim 1, wherein light element atoms include one or more of hydrogen-1, deuterium, boron-11, lithium-6, lithium-7, deuterium, tritium, helium-3, nitrogen-15 and tritium.
 25. The system of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of the base structure comprises one or more of palladium, tungsten, boron hydride, titanium, tantalum.
 26. The system of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of the base structure comprises one or more getter materials.
 27. The system of claim 1, further comprising one or more antenna structures.
 28. The system of claim 27, wherein said one or more antenna structures comprise a first structure and a second metal structure respectively located on opposite sides of said base structure.
 29. The system of claim 1, wherein the source of EM radiation is configured to operate at a power between about 1 mW and 10 mW.
 30. The system of claim 1, wherein electron screening substantially offsets or reduces the effect of the Coulomb barrier between nuclei of the light element atoms.
 31. The system of claim 30, wherein the oscillating free electrons, create an electric field greater than about 10⁸ volts/meter at a location proximate to the two localized regions and provides localized compression by ponderomotive forces that induces a fusion reaction between nuclei of at least a portion of the light element atoms.
 32. An apparatus for enhancing electron screening comprising: an electrically conductive base structure, the base structure including light element atoms and free electrons; the base structure being configured such that, when subjected to applied electromagnetic (EM) radiation, having an excitation frequency: in response to the applied EM radiation, the free electrons oscillate between at least two localized regions of the base structure; and the oscillation generates periodic charge density variations around a portion of the light element atoms that are disposed in the at least two localized regions.
 33. The apparatus of claim 32, wherein the base structure comprises a nanostructure.
 34. The apparatus of claim 32, wherein electron screening substantially offsets or reduces the effect of the Coulomb barrier between nuclei of the light element atoms.
 35. The apparatus of claim 34, wherein the oscillating free electrons creates an electric field greater than about 10⁸ volts/meter at a location proximate to the two localized regions and provides localized compression by ponderomotive forces that induces a fusion reaction between nuclei of at least a portion of the light element atoms. 